From f4d632df2cb0a6109229c363c498ec304e0c912d Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: a <57275181+tuxpainter@users.noreply.github.com>
Date: Thu, 24 Sep 2026 03:58:39 -0500
Subject: [PATCH] feat: create capture subscription api to support more
 transports (#699)
MIME-Version: 1.0
Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8
Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit

* feat: introduce encoded media subscriptions

* chore: preserve sample field comments

* perf: reduce encoded sample dispatch copies

* docs: define encoded sample buffer ownership

* fix: avoid pipeline recreation errors

Reuse pipelines started by a new subscription during resize.

* fix: synchronize stream bitrate state

Protect bitrate updates, reads, and resets with one mutex.

* simplify

* group stream sink fields

* fix: remove unnecessary blank line in removeSubscription method

* remove defensive check

* remove noop

---------

Co-authored-by: Miroslav Šedivý <sedivy.miro@gmail.com>
---
 server/internal/capture/manager.go         |   6 +-
 server/internal/capture/streamselector.go  |  29 ++-
 server/internal/capture/streamsink.go      | 250 ++++++++++++++-------
 server/internal/capture/streamsink_test.go | 232 +++++++++++++++++++
 server/internal/webrtc/peer.go             |   4 +-
 server/internal/webrtc/track.go            |  91 ++++----
 server/pkg/gst/gst.c                       |  11 +-
 server/pkg/gst/gst.go                      |   6 +-
 server/pkg/gst/gst.h                       |   2 +-
 server/pkg/types/capture.go                |  49 ++--
 10 files changed, 505 insertions(+), 175 deletions(-)
 create mode 100644 server/internal/capture/streamsink_test.go

diff --git a/server/internal/capture/manager.go b/server/internal/capture/manager.go
index 5872c90f..adeac6c6 100644
--- a/server/internal/capture/manager.go
+++ b/server/internal/capture/manager.go
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ type CaptureManagerCtx struct {
 func New(desktop types.DesktopManager, config *config.Capture) *CaptureManagerCtx {
 	logger := log.With().Str("module", "capture").Logger()
 
-	videos := map[string]types.StreamSinkManager{}
+	videos := map[string]*StreamSinkManagerCtx{}
 	for video_id, cnf := range config.VideoPipelines {
 		pipelineConf := cnf
 
@@ -257,11 +257,11 @@ func (manager *CaptureManagerCtx) Screencast() types.ScreencastManager {
 	return manager.screencast
 }
 
-func (manager *CaptureManagerCtx) Audio() types.StreamSinkManager {
+func (manager *CaptureManagerCtx) Audio() types.EncodedStream {
 	return manager.audio
 }
 
-func (manager *CaptureManagerCtx) Video() types.StreamSelectorManager {
+func (manager *CaptureManagerCtx) Video() types.EncodedStreamSelector {
 	return manager.video
 }
 
diff --git a/server/internal/capture/streamselector.go b/server/internal/capture/streamselector.go
index d646e56c..e17fe869 100644
--- a/server/internal/capture/streamselector.go
+++ b/server/internal/capture/streamselector.go
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 package capture
 
 import (
-	"errors"
 	"sort"
 
 	"github.com/rs/zerolog"
@@ -14,11 +13,11 @@ import (
 type StreamSelectorManagerCtx struct {
 	logger    zerolog.Logger
 	codec     codec.RTPCodec
-	streams   map[string]types.StreamSinkManager
+	streams   map[string]*StreamSinkManagerCtx
 	streamIDs []string
 }
 
-func streamSelectorNew(codec codec.RTPCodec, streams map[string]types.StreamSinkManager, streamIDs []string) *StreamSelectorManagerCtx {
+func streamSelectorNew(codec codec.RTPCodec, streams map[string]*StreamSinkManagerCtx, streamIDs []string) *StreamSelectorManagerCtx {
 	logger := log.With().
 		Str("module", "capture").
 		Str("submodule", "stream-selector").
@@ -40,17 +39,17 @@ func (manager *StreamSelectorManagerCtx) shutdown() {
 
 func (manager *StreamSelectorManagerCtx) destroyPipelines() {
 	for _, stream := range manager.streams {
-		if stream.Started() {
-			stream.DestroyPipeline()
+		if stream.started() {
+			stream.destroyPipeline()
 		}
 	}
 }
 
 func (manager *StreamSelectorManagerCtx) recreatePipelines() error {
 	for _, stream := range manager.streams {
-		if stream.Started() {
-			err := stream.CreatePipeline()
-			if err != nil && !errors.Is(err, types.ErrCapturePipelineAlreadyExists) {
+		if stream.started() {
+			err := stream.createPipeline()
+			if err != nil {
 				return err
 			}
 		}
@@ -66,12 +65,12 @@ func (manager *StreamSelectorManagerCtx) Codec() codec.RTPCodec {
 	return manager.codec
 }
 
-func (manager *StreamSelectorManagerCtx) GetStream(selector types.StreamSelector) (types.StreamSinkManager, bool) {
+func (manager *StreamSelectorManagerCtx) GetStream(selector types.StreamSelector) (types.EncodedStream, bool) {
 	// select stream by ID
 	if selector.ID != "" {
 		// select lower stream
 		if selector.Type == types.StreamSelectorTypeLower {
-			var lastStream types.StreamSinkManager
+			var lastStream types.EncodedStream
 			for i := len(manager.streamIDs) - 1; i >= 0; i-- {
 				streamID := manager.streamIDs[i]
 				if streamID == selector.ID {
@@ -88,7 +87,7 @@ func (manager *StreamSelectorManagerCtx) GetStream(selector types.StreamSelector
 
 		// select higher stream
 		if selector.Type == types.StreamSelectorTypeHigher {
-			var lastStream types.StreamSinkManager
+			var lastStream types.EncodedStream
 			for _, streamID := range manager.streamIDs {
 				if streamID == selector.ID {
 					return lastStream, lastStream != nil
@@ -121,7 +120,7 @@ func (manager *StreamSelectorManagerCtx) GetStream(selector types.StreamSelector
 				streamID := manager.streamIDs[i]
 				stream := manager.streams[streamID]
 				// if stream should be considered in calculation
-				considered := stream.Bitrate() != 0 && stream.Started()
+				considered := stream.Bitrate() != 0 && stream.started()
 				if considered && stream.Bitrate() < selector.Bitrate {
 					return stream, true
 				}
@@ -136,7 +135,7 @@ func (manager *StreamSelectorManagerCtx) GetStream(selector types.StreamSelector
 			for _, streamID := range manager.streamIDs {
 				stream := manager.streams[streamID]
 				// if stream should be considered in calculation
-				considered := stream.Bitrate() != 0 && stream.Started()
+				considered := stream.Bitrate() != 0 && stream.started()
 				if considered && stream.Bitrate() > selector.Bitrate {
 					return stream, true
 				}
@@ -158,7 +157,7 @@ func (manager *StreamSelectorManagerCtx) GetStream(selector types.StreamSelector
 }
 
 // TODO: This is a very naive implementation, we should use a binary search instead.
-func (manager *StreamSelectorManagerCtx) nearestBitrate(bitrate uint64) types.StreamSinkManager {
+func (manager *StreamSelectorManagerCtx) nearestBitrate(bitrate uint64) types.EncodedStream {
 	type streamDiff struct {
 		id          string
 		bitrateDiff int
@@ -181,7 +180,7 @@ func (manager *StreamSelectorManagerCtx) nearestBitrate(bitrate uint64) types.St
 
 	for _, stream := range manager.streams {
 		// if stream should be considered in calculation
-		considered := stream.Bitrate() != 0 && stream.Started()
+		considered := stream.Bitrate() != 0 && stream.started()
 		if !considered {
 			continue
 		}
diff --git a/server/internal/capture/streamsink.go b/server/internal/capture/streamsink.go
index 79ba17ff..404128b4 100644
--- a/server/internal/capture/streamsink.go
+++ b/server/internal/capture/streamsink.go
@@ -2,8 +2,8 @@ package capture
 
 import (
 	"errors"
-	"reflect"
 	"sync"
+	"sync/atomic"
 	"time"
 
 	"github.com/prometheus/client_golang/prometheus"
@@ -17,30 +17,44 @@ import (
 	"github.com/m1k1o/neko/server/pkg/types/codec"
 )
 
-var moveSinkListenerMu = sync.Mutex{}
+var moveSinkSubscriptionMu sync.Mutex
+
+type sinkPipeline interface {
+	Sample() chan types.Sample
+	AttachAppsink(string)
+	Play()
+	Destroy()
+	EmitVideoKeyframe() bool
+}
 
 type StreamSinkManagerCtx struct {
-	id string
+	// Configuration set before use.
+	id              string
+	logger          zerolog.Logger
+	codec           codec.RTPCodec
+	waitForKf       bool // wait for a keyframe before sending samples
+	pipelineFn      func() (string, error)
+	pipelineFactory func(string) (sinkPipeline, error)
 
-	// wait for a keyframe before sending samples
-	waitForKf bool
+	// Serializes subscription add, remove, and move operations.
+	mu sync.Mutex
 
+	// Serializes pipeline creation and destruction.
+	pipelineMu sync.Mutex
+	pipeline   sinkPipeline
+	wg         sync.WaitGroup // tracks pipeline sample readers
+
+	// Serializes listener map updates and snapshot publication.
+	listenersMu       sync.Mutex
+	listeners         map[*streamSubscription]types.SampleConsumer
+	listenersKf       map[*streamSubscription]types.SampleConsumer // keyframe lobby
+	listenersSnapshot atomic.Value                                 // read without listenersMu
+
+	// Protects bitrate accounting, reads, and resets.
+	bitrateMu sync.Mutex
 	bitrate   uint64
 	brBuckets map[int]float64
 
-	logger zerolog.Logger
-	mu     sync.Mutex
-	wg     sync.WaitGroup
-
-	codec      codec.RTPCodec
-	pipeline   gst.Pipeline
-	pipelineMu sync.Mutex
-	pipelineFn func() (string, error)
-
-	listeners   map[uintptr]types.SampleListener
-	listenersKf map[uintptr]types.SampleListener // keyframe lobby
-	listenersMu sync.Mutex
-
 	// metrics
 	currentListeners prometheus.Gauge
 	totalBytes       prometheus.Counter
@@ -66,9 +80,12 @@ func streamSinkNew(codec codec.RTPCodec, pipelineFn func() (string, error), id s
 		logger:     logger,
 		codec:      codec,
 		pipelineFn: pipelineFn,
+		pipelineFactory: func(src string) (sinkPipeline, error) {
+			return gst.CreatePipeline(src)
+		},
 
-		listeners:   map[uintptr]types.SampleListener{},
-		listenersKf: map[uintptr]types.SampleListener{},
+		listeners:   map[*streamSubscription]types.SampleConsumer{},
+		listenersKf: map[*streamSubscription]types.SampleConsumer{},
 
 		// metrics
 		currentListeners: promauto.NewGauge(prometheus.GaugeOpts{
@@ -118,6 +135,7 @@ func streamSinkNew(codec codec.RTPCodec, pipelineFn func() (string, error), id s
 			},
 		}),
 	}
+	manager.listenersSnapshot.Store([]types.SampleConsumer(nil))
 
 	return manager
 }
@@ -132,9 +150,10 @@ func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) shutdown() {
 	for key := range manager.listenersKf {
 		delete(manager.listenersKf, key)
 	}
+	manager.updateListenersSnapshotLocked()
 	manager.listenersMu.Unlock()
 
-	manager.DestroyPipeline()
+	manager.destroyPipeline()
 	manager.wg.Wait()
 }
 
@@ -143,6 +162,9 @@ func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) ID() string {
 }
 
 func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) Bitrate() uint64 {
+	manager.bitrateMu.Lock()
+	defer manager.bitrateMu.Unlock()
+
 	return manager.bitrate
 }
 
@@ -150,10 +172,76 @@ func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) Codec() codec.RTPCodec {
 	return manager.codec
 }
 
+type streamSubscription struct {
+	mu       sync.Mutex
+	stream   *StreamSinkManagerCtx
+	consumer types.SampleConsumer
+	closed   bool
+}
+
+func (subscription *streamSubscription) Stream() types.EncodedStream {
+	subscription.mu.Lock()
+	defer subscription.mu.Unlock()
+
+	if subscription.closed {
+		return nil
+	}
+	return subscription.stream
+}
+
+func (subscription *streamSubscription) Switch(stream types.EncodedStream) error {
+	subscription.mu.Lock()
+	defer subscription.mu.Unlock()
+
+	if subscription.closed {
+		return errors.New("stream subscription is closed")
+	}
+
+	target, ok := stream.(*StreamSinkManagerCtx)
+	if !ok || target == nil {
+		return errors.New("target stream is incompatible with this subscription")
+	}
+	if target == subscription.stream {
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	if err := subscription.stream.moveSubscriptionTo(subscription, target); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	subscription.stream = target
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (subscription *streamSubscription) Close() error {
+	subscription.mu.Lock()
+	defer subscription.mu.Unlock()
+
+	if subscription.closed {
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	subscription.stream.removeSubscription(subscription)
+	subscription.closed = true
+	subscription.stream = nil
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) Subscribe(consumer types.SampleConsumer) (types.StreamSubscription, error) {
+	if consumer == nil {
+		return nil, errors.New("sample consumer cannot be nil")
+	}
+
+	subscription := &streamSubscription{stream: manager, consumer: consumer}
+	if err := manager.addSubscription(subscription); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	return subscription, nil
+}
+
 func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) start() error {
 	if len(manager.listeners)+len(manager.listenersKf) == 0 {
-		err := manager.CreatePipeline()
-		if err != nil && !errors.Is(err, types.ErrCapturePipelineAlreadyExists) {
+		err := manager.createPipeline()
+		if err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
 
@@ -165,13 +253,12 @@ func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) start() error {
 
 func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) stop() {
 	if len(manager.listeners)+len(manager.listenersKf) == 0 {
-		manager.DestroyPipeline()
+		manager.destroyPipeline()
 		manager.logger.Info().Msgf("last listener, stopping")
 	}
 }
 
-func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) addListener(listener types.SampleListener) {
-	ptr := reflect.ValueOf(listener).Pointer()
+func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) addSubscriptionToMaps(subscription *streamSubscription) {
 	emitKeyframe := false
 
 	manager.listenersMu.Lock()
@@ -179,15 +266,16 @@ func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) addListener(listener types.SampleListener)
 		// if this is the first listener, we need to emit a keyframe
 		emitKeyframe = len(manager.listenersKf) == 0
 		// if we're waiting for a keyframe, add it to the keyframe lobby
-		manager.listenersKf[ptr] = listener
+		manager.listenersKf[subscription] = subscription.consumer
 	} else {
 		// otherwise, add it as a regular listener
-		manager.listeners[ptr] = listener
+		manager.listeners[subscription] = subscription.consumer
+		manager.updateListenersSnapshotLocked()
 	}
 	manager.listenersMu.Unlock()
 
-	manager.logger.Debug().Interface("ptr", ptr).Msgf("adding listener")
-	manager.currentListeners.Set(float64(manager.ListenersCount()))
+	manager.logger.Debug().Interface("subscription", subscription).Msg("adding subscription")
+	manager.currentListeners.Set(float64(manager.subscriptionsCount()))
 
 	// if we will be waiting for a keyframe, emit one now
 	if manager.pipeline != nil && emitKeyframe {
@@ -195,72 +283,50 @@ func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) addListener(listener types.SampleListener)
 	}
 }
 
-func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) removeListener(listener types.SampleListener) {
-	ptr := reflect.ValueOf(listener).Pointer()
-
+func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) removeSubscriptionFromMaps(subscription *streamSubscription) {
 	manager.listenersMu.Lock()
-	delete(manager.listeners, ptr)
-	delete(manager.listenersKf, ptr) //	if it's a keyframe listener, remove it too
+	delete(manager.listeners, subscription)
+	delete(manager.listenersKf, subscription)
+	manager.updateListenersSnapshotLocked()
 	manager.listenersMu.Unlock()
 
-	manager.logger.Debug().Interface("ptr", ptr).Msgf("removing listener")
-	manager.currentListeners.Set(float64(manager.ListenersCount()))
+	manager.logger.Debug().Interface("subscription", subscription).Msg("removing subscription")
+	manager.currentListeners.Set(float64(manager.subscriptionsCount()))
 }
 
-func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) AddListener(listener types.SampleListener) error {
+func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) addSubscription(subscription *streamSubscription) error {
 	manager.mu.Lock()
 	defer manager.mu.Unlock()
 
-	if listener == nil {
-		return errors.New("listener cannot be nil")
-	}
-
 	// start if stopped
 	if err := manager.start(); err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
 
 	// add listener
-	manager.addListener(listener)
+	manager.addSubscriptionToMaps(subscription)
 
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) RemoveListener(listener types.SampleListener) error {
+func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) removeSubscription(subscription *streamSubscription) {
 	manager.mu.Lock()
 	defer manager.mu.Unlock()
 
-	if listener == nil {
-		return errors.New("listener cannot be nil")
-	}
-
-	// remove listener
-	manager.removeListener(listener)
+	manager.removeSubscriptionFromMaps(subscription)
 
 	// stop if started
 	manager.stop()
-
-	return nil
 }
 
-// moving listeners between streams ensures, that target pipeline is running
-// before listener is added, and stops source pipeline if there are 0 listeners
-func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) MoveListenerTo(listener types.SampleListener, stream types.StreamSinkManager) error {
-	if listener == nil {
-		return errors.New("listener cannot be nil")
-	}
-
-	targetStream, ok := stream.(*StreamSinkManagerCtx)
-	if !ok {
-		return errors.New("target stream manager does not support moving listeners")
-	}
-
+// moveSubscriptionTo starts the target before moving delivery and stopping the source.
+func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) moveSubscriptionTo(subscription *streamSubscription, targetStream *StreamSinkManagerCtx) error {
 	// we need to acquire both mutextes, from source stream and from target stream
 	// in order to do that safely (without possibility of deadlock) we need third
 	// global mutex, that ensures atomic locking
 
 	// lock global mutex
-	moveSinkListenerMu.Lock()
+	moveSinkSubscriptionMu.Lock()
 
 	// lock source stream
 	manager.mu.Lock()
@@ -271,7 +337,7 @@ func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) MoveListenerTo(listener types.SampleListene
 	defer targetStream.mu.Unlock()
 
 	// unlock global mutex
-	moveSinkListenerMu.Unlock()
+	moveSinkSubscriptionMu.Unlock()
 
 	// start if stopped
 	if err := targetStream.start(); err != nil {
@@ -279,8 +345,8 @@ func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) MoveListenerTo(listener types.SampleListene
 	}
 
 	// swap listeners
-	manager.removeListener(listener)
-	targetStream.addListener(listener)
+	manager.removeSubscriptionFromMaps(subscription)
+	targetStream.addSubscriptionToMaps(subscription)
 
 	// stop if started
 	manager.stop()
@@ -288,23 +354,23 @@ func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) MoveListenerTo(listener types.SampleListene
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) ListenersCount() int {
+func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) subscriptionsCount() int {
 	manager.listenersMu.Lock()
 	defer manager.listenersMu.Unlock()
 
 	return len(manager.listeners) + len(manager.listenersKf)
 }
 
-func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) Started() bool {
-	return manager.ListenersCount() > 0
+func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) started() bool {
+	return manager.subscriptionsCount() > 0
 }
 
-func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) CreatePipeline() error {
+func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) createPipeline() error {
 	manager.pipelineMu.Lock()
 	defer manager.pipelineMu.Unlock()
 
 	if manager.pipeline != nil {
-		return types.ErrCapturePipelineAlreadyExists
+		return nil
 	}
 
 	pipelineStr, err := manager.pipelineFn()
@@ -317,7 +383,7 @@ func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) CreatePipeline() error {
 		Str("src", pipelineStr).
 		Msgf("creating pipeline")
 
-	manager.pipeline, err = gst.CreatePipeline(pipelineStr)
+	manager.pipeline, err = manager.pipelineFactory(pipelineStr)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
@@ -347,6 +413,9 @@ func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) CreatePipeline() error {
 }
 
 func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) saveSampleBitrate(timestamp time.Time, delta float64) {
+	manager.bitrateMu.Lock()
+	defer manager.bitrateMu.Unlock()
+
 	// get unix timestamp in seconds
 	sec := timestamp.Unix()
 	// last bucket is timestamp rounded to 3 seconds - 1 second
@@ -357,7 +426,7 @@ func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) saveSampleBitrate(timestamp time.Time, delt
 	next := int((sec + 1) % 3)
 
 	if manager.brBuckets[next] != 0 {
-		// update bitrate, TODO: atomic?
+		// update bitrate
 		manager.bitrate = uint64(manager.brBuckets[last])
 		// empty next bucket
 		manager.brBuckets[next] = 0
@@ -368,36 +437,41 @@ func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) saveSampleBitrate(timestamp time.Time, delt
 }
 
 func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) onSample(sample types.Sample) {
-	manager.listenersMu.Lock()
-
 	// save to metrics
 	length := float64(sample.Length)
 	manager.totalBytes.Add(length)
 	manager.saveSampleBitrate(sample.Timestamp, length)
 
 	// if is not delta unit -> it can be decoded independently -> it is a keyframe
-	if manager.waitForKf && !sample.DeltaUnit && len(manager.listenersKf) > 0 {
+	if manager.waitForKf && !sample.DeltaUnit {
+		manager.listenersMu.Lock()
 		// if current sample is a keyframe, move listeners from
 		// keyframe lobby to actual listeners map and clear lobby
 		for k, v := range manager.listenersKf {
 			manager.listeners[k] = v
 		}
-		manager.listenersKf = make(map[uintptr]types.SampleListener)
+		if len(manager.listenersKf) > 0 {
+			manager.listenersKf = make(map[*streamSubscription]types.SampleConsumer)
+			manager.updateListenersSnapshotLocked()
+		}
+		manager.listenersMu.Unlock()
 	}
 
-	// copy listeners before releasing lock to avoid holding it during dispatch
-	listeners := make([]types.SampleListener, 0, len(manager.listeners))
-	for _, l := range manager.listeners {
-		listeners = append(listeners, l)
-	}
-	manager.listenersMu.Unlock()
-
+	listeners := manager.listenersSnapshot.Load().([]types.SampleConsumer)
 	for _, l := range listeners {
 		l.WriteSample(sample)
 	}
 }
 
-func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) DestroyPipeline() {
+func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) updateListenersSnapshotLocked() {
+	listeners := make([]types.SampleConsumer, 0, len(manager.listeners))
+	for _, listener := range manager.listeners {
+		listeners = append(listeners, listener)
+	}
+	manager.listenersSnapshot.Store(listeners)
+}
+
+func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) destroyPipeline() {
 	manager.pipelineMu.Lock()
 	defer manager.pipelineMu.Unlock()
 
@@ -411,6 +485,8 @@ func (manager *StreamSinkManagerCtx) DestroyPipeline() {
 
 	manager.pipelinesActive.Set(0)
 
+	manager.bitrateMu.Lock()
 	manager.brBuckets = make(map[int]float64)
 	manager.bitrate = 0
+	manager.bitrateMu.Unlock()
 }
diff --git a/server/internal/capture/streamsink_test.go b/server/internal/capture/streamsink_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..98f33e72
--- /dev/null
+++ b/server/internal/capture/streamsink_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,232 @@
+package capture
+
+import (
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"sync"
+	"sync/atomic"
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/m1k1o/neko/server/pkg/types"
+	"github.com/m1k1o/neko/server/pkg/types/codec"
+)
+
+var testStreamID atomic.Uint64
+
+type fakeSinkPipeline struct {
+	samples   chan types.Sample
+	onDestroy func()
+}
+
+func (p *fakeSinkPipeline) Sample() chan types.Sample { return p.samples }
+func (p *fakeSinkPipeline) AttachAppsink(string)      {}
+func (p *fakeSinkPipeline) Play()                     {}
+func (p *fakeSinkPipeline) EmitVideoKeyframe() bool   { return true }
+func (p *fakeSinkPipeline) Destroy() {
+	p.onDestroy()
+	close(p.samples)
+}
+
+type testSink struct {
+	*StreamSinkManagerCtx
+	created, destroyed int
+}
+
+func newTestSink(t *testing.T, c codec.RTPCodec) *testSink {
+	t.Helper()
+	id := fmt.Sprintf("test-%d", testStreamID.Add(1))
+	s := &testSink{StreamSinkManagerCtx: streamSinkNew(c, func() (string, error) { return id, nil }, id)}
+	s.pipelineFactory = func(string) (sinkPipeline, error) {
+		s.created++
+		return &fakeSinkPipeline{make(chan types.Sample), func() { s.destroyed++ }}, nil
+	}
+	t.Cleanup(s.shutdown)
+	return s
+}
+
+func (s *testSink) check(t *testing.T, created, destroyed int, started bool) {
+	t.Helper()
+	if s.created != created || s.destroyed != destroyed || s.started() != started {
+		t.Fatalf("lifecycle = (%d, %d, %v), want (%d, %d, %v)", s.created, s.destroyed, s.started(), created, destroyed, started)
+	}
+}
+
+func checkError(t *testing.T, err error) {
+	t.Helper()
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+}
+
+func subscribe(t *testing.T, s types.EncodedStream, consumer types.SampleConsumer) types.StreamSubscription {
+	t.Helper()
+	sub, err := s.Subscribe(consumer)
+	checkError(t, err)
+	t.Cleanup(func() { checkError(t, sub.Close()) })
+	return sub
+}
+
+type sampleCounter struct{ atomic.Int64 }
+
+func (c *sampleCounter) WriteSample(types.Sample) { c.Add(1) }
+
+func TestSubscriptionLifecycle(t *testing.T) {
+	s := newTestSink(t, codec.Opus())
+	if _, err := s.Subscribe(nil); err == nil {
+		t.Fatal("Subscribe(nil) succeeded")
+	}
+	s.check(t, 0, 0, false)
+
+	a := subscribe(t, s, &sampleCounter{})
+	s.check(t, 1, 0, true)
+	b := subscribe(t, s, &sampleCounter{})
+	s.check(t, 1, 0, true)
+	checkError(t, a.Close())
+	s.check(t, 1, 0, true)
+	checkError(t, b.Close())
+	s.check(t, 1, 1, false)
+	checkError(t, b.Close())
+	s.check(t, 1, 1, false)
+}
+
+func TestSampleDispatch(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, c := range []codec.RTPCodec{codec.Opus(), codec.VP8()} {
+		t.Run(c.Name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			s := newTestSink(t, c)
+			counter := &sampleCounter{}
+			subscribe(t, s, counter)
+			for i, delta := range []bool{true, false, true} {
+				s.onSample(types.Sample{DeltaUnit: delta})
+				want := int64(i + 1)
+				if c.IsVideo() {
+					want--
+				}
+				if got := counter.Load(); got != want {
+					t.Fatalf("sample %d: deliveries = %d, want %d", i, got, want)
+				}
+			}
+			sample := types.Sample{Timestamp: time.Unix(0, 0), DeltaUnit: true}
+			if allocs := testing.AllocsPerRun(100, func() { s.onSample(sample) }); allocs != 0 {
+				t.Fatalf("allocations per dispatch = %f, want 0", allocs)
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestSubscriptionSwitch(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, fail := range []bool{false, true} {
+		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("startup-fails=%v", fail), func(t *testing.T) {
+			source, target := newTestSink(t, codec.VP8()), newTestSink(t, codec.VP8())
+			factory := target.pipelineFactory
+			target.pipelineFactory = func(src string) (sinkPipeline, error) {
+				if source.destroyed != 0 {
+					t.Error("source stopped before target startup")
+				}
+				if fail {
+					return nil, errors.New("target startup failed")
+				}
+				return factory(src)
+			}
+			counter := &sampleCounter{}
+			sub := subscribe(t, source, counter)
+			err := sub.Switch(target.StreamSinkManagerCtx)
+			if fail {
+				if err == nil || sub.Stream() != source.StreamSinkManagerCtx {
+					t.Fatal("failed switch did not preserve the source subscription")
+				}
+				source.check(t, 1, 0, true)
+				target.check(t, 0, 0, false)
+				source.onSample(types.Sample{})
+			} else {
+				checkError(t, err)
+				if sub.Stream() != target.StreamSinkManagerCtx {
+					t.Fatal("successful switch did not select the target")
+				}
+				source.check(t, 1, 1, false)
+				target.check(t, 1, 0, true)
+				target.onSample(types.Sample{DeltaUnit: true})
+				if counter.Load() != 0 {
+					t.Fatal("switched consumer received a delta before a keyframe")
+				}
+				target.onSample(types.Sample{})
+			}
+			if counter.Load() != 1 {
+				t.Fatal("consumer did not receive the keyframe")
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestPipelineRecreation(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, newViewer := range []bool{false, true} {
+		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("new-viewer=%v", newViewer), func(t *testing.T) {
+			s := newTestSink(t, codec.VP8())
+			selector := streamSelectorNew(codec.VP8(), map[string]*StreamSinkManagerCtx{s.ID(): s.StreamSinkManagerCtx}, []string{s.ID()})
+			if newViewer {
+				selector.destroyPipelines()
+			}
+			counter := &sampleCounter{}
+			sub := subscribe(t, s, counter)
+			if !newViewer {
+				selector.destroyPipelines()
+			}
+			if sub.Stream() != s.StreamSinkManagerCtx || !s.started() {
+				t.Fatal("resize lost the logical subscription")
+			}
+			checkError(t, selector.recreatePipelines())
+			if newViewer {
+				s.check(t, 1, 0, true)
+			} else {
+				s.check(t, 2, 1, true)
+			}
+			s.onSample(types.Sample{})
+			if counter.Load() != 1 {
+				t.Fatal("subscription stopped delivering after recreation")
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestConcurrentBitrateUpdates(t *testing.T) {
+	s := newTestSink(t, codec.Opus())
+	s.saveSampleBitrate(time.Unix(2, 0), 1)
+	var wg sync.WaitGroup
+	for range 2 {
+		wg.Go(func() {
+			for range 1000 {
+				s.saveSampleBitrate(time.Unix(3, 0), 1)
+			}
+		})
+	}
+	wg.Wait()
+	s.saveSampleBitrate(time.Unix(4, 0), 0)
+	if got := s.Bitrate(); got != 2000 {
+		t.Fatalf("bitrate = %d, want 2000", got)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestBitrateDuringPipelineRestart(t *testing.T) {
+	s := newTestSink(t, codec.Opus())
+	done := make(chan struct{})
+	var wg sync.WaitGroup
+	wg.Go(func() {
+		for sec := int64(0); ; sec++ {
+			select {
+			case <-done:
+				return
+			default:
+				s.saveSampleBitrate(time.Unix(sec, 0), 1)
+			}
+		}
+	})
+	defer func() {
+		close(done)
+		wg.Wait()
+	}()
+	for range 20 {
+		checkError(t, s.createPipeline())
+		_ = s.Bitrate()
+		s.destroyPipeline()
+	}
+}
diff --git a/server/internal/webrtc/peer.go b/server/internal/webrtc/peer.go
index 5bf00a10..1bc502ce 100644
--- a/server/internal/webrtc/peer.go
+++ b/server/internal/webrtc/peer.go
@@ -28,8 +28,8 @@ type WebRTCPeerCtx struct {
 	estimator     cc.BandwidthEstimator
 	estimateTrend *utils.TrendDetector
 	// stream selectors
-	video types.StreamSelectorManager
-	audio types.StreamSinkManager
+	video types.EncodedStreamSelector
+	audio types.EncodedStream
 	// tracks & channels
 	audioTrack  *Track
 	videoTrack  *Track
diff --git a/server/internal/webrtc/track.go b/server/internal/webrtc/track.go
index d5a37d70..39b6bcab 100644
--- a/server/internal/webrtc/track.go
+++ b/server/internal/webrtc/track.go
@@ -20,10 +20,13 @@ type Track struct {
 
 	rtcpCh chan []rtcp.Packet
 	sample chan types.Sample
+	done   chan struct{}
 
-	paused   bool
-	stream   types.StreamSinkManager
-	streamMu sync.Mutex
+	paused       bool
+	stream       types.EncodedStream
+	subscription types.StreamSubscription
+	streamMu     sync.Mutex
+	shutdownOnce sync.Once
 }
 
 type trackOption func(*Track)
@@ -46,6 +49,7 @@ func NewTrack(logger zerolog.Logger, codec codec.RTPCodec, connection *webrtc.Pe
 		track:  track,
 		rtcpCh: nil,
 		sample: make(chan types.Sample, 2),
+		done:   make(chan struct{}),
 	}
 
 	for _, opt := range opts {
@@ -64,8 +68,10 @@ func NewTrack(logger zerolog.Logger, codec codec.RTPCodec, connection *webrtc.Pe
 }
 
 func (t *Track) Shutdown() {
-	t.RemoveStream()
-	close(t.sample)
+	t.shutdownOnce.Do(func() {
+		t.RemoveStream()
+		close(t.done)
+	})
 }
 
 func (t *Track) rtcpReader(sender *webrtc.RTPSender) {
@@ -91,26 +97,27 @@ func (t *Track) rtcpReader(sender *webrtc.RTPSender) {
 
 func (t *Track) sampleReader() {
 	for {
-		sample, ok := <-t.sample
-		if !ok {
+		select {
+		case <-t.done:
 			t.logger.Debug().Msg("track sample reader closed")
 			return
-		}
+		case sample := <-t.sample:
+			err := t.track.WriteSample(media.Sample{
+				Data:      sample.Data,
+				Duration:  sample.Duration,
+				Timestamp: sample.Timestamp,
+			})
 
-		err := t.track.WriteSample(media.Sample{
-			Data:      sample.Data,
-			Duration:  sample.Duration,
-			Timestamp: sample.Timestamp,
-		})
-
-		if err != nil && !errors.Is(err, io.ErrClosedPipe) {
-			t.logger.Warn().Err(err).Msg("failed to write sample to track")
+			if err != nil && !errors.Is(err, io.ErrClosedPipe) {
+				t.logger.Warn().Err(err).Msg("failed to write sample to track")
+			}
 		}
 	}
 }
 
 func (t *Track) WriteSample(sample types.Sample) {
 	select {
+	case <-t.done:
 	case t.sample <- sample:
 	default:
 		t.logger.Trace().Msg("dropping sample: track channel full")
@@ -119,7 +126,7 @@ func (t *Track) WriteSample(sample types.Sample) {
 
 // --- stream ---
 
-func (t *Track) SetStream(stream types.StreamSinkManager) (bool, error) {
+func (t *Track) SetStream(stream types.EncodedStream) (bool, error) {
 	t.streamMu.Lock()
 	defer t.streamMu.Unlock()
 
@@ -134,14 +141,16 @@ func (t *Track) SetStream(stream types.StreamSinkManager) (bool, error) {
 		return true, nil
 	}
 
-	var err error
-	if t.stream != nil {
-		err = t.stream.MoveListenerTo(t, stream)
+	if t.subscription != nil {
+		if err := t.subscription.Switch(stream); err != nil {
+			return false, err
+		}
 	} else {
-		err = stream.AddListener(t)
-	}
-	if err != nil {
-		return false, err
+		subscription, err := stream.Subscribe(t)
+		if err != nil {
+			return false, err
+		}
+		t.subscription = subscription
 	}
 
 	t.stream = stream
@@ -152,21 +161,21 @@ func (t *Track) RemoveStream() {
 	t.streamMu.Lock()
 	defer t.streamMu.Unlock()
 
-	// if there is no stream, or paused we don't need to remove the listener
-	if t.stream == nil || t.paused {
-		t.stream = nil
+	if t.stream == nil {
 		return
 	}
 
-	err := t.stream.RemoveListener(t)
-	if err != nil {
-		t.logger.Warn().Err(err).Msg("failed to remove listener from stream")
+	if t.subscription != nil {
+		if err := t.subscription.Close(); err != nil {
+			t.logger.Warn().Err(err).Msg("failed to close stream subscription")
+		}
+		t.subscription = nil
 	}
 
 	t.stream = nil
 }
 
-func (t *Track) Stream() (types.StreamSinkManager, bool) {
+func (t *Track) Stream() (types.EncodedStream, bool) {
 	t.streamMu.Lock()
 	defer t.streamMu.Unlock()
 
@@ -185,15 +194,21 @@ func (t *Track) SetPaused(paused bool) {
 		return
 	}
 
-	var err error
 	if paused {
-		err = t.stream.RemoveListener(t)
+		if t.subscription != nil {
+			if err := t.subscription.Close(); err != nil {
+				t.logger.Warn().Err(err).Msg("failed to pause stream subscription")
+				return
+			}
+			t.subscription = nil
+		}
 	} else {
-		err = t.stream.AddListener(t)
-	}
-	if err != nil {
-		t.logger.Warn().Err(err).Msg("failed to change listener state")
-		return
+		subscription, err := t.stream.Subscribe(t)
+		if err != nil {
+			t.logger.Warn().Err(err).Msg("failed to resume stream subscription")
+			return
+		}
+		t.subscription = subscription
 	}
 
 	t.paused = paused
diff --git a/server/pkg/gst/gst.c b/server/pkg/gst/gst.c
index f1aa006f..0d1166a4 100644
--- a/server/pkg/gst/gst.c
+++ b/server/pkg/gst/gst.c
@@ -87,18 +87,19 @@ static GstFlowReturn gstreamer_send_new_sample_handler(GstElement *object, gpoin
   GstPipelineCtx *ctx = (GstPipelineCtx *)user_data;
   GstSample *sample = NULL;
   GstBuffer *buffer = NULL;
-  gpointer copy = NULL;
-  gsize copy_size = 0;
+  GstMapInfo map = {0};
 
   g_signal_emit_by_name(object, "pull-sample", &sample);
   if (sample) {
     buffer = gst_sample_get_buffer(sample);
-    if (buffer) {
-      gst_buffer_extract_dup(buffer, 0, gst_buffer_get_size(buffer), &copy, &copy_size);
-      goHandlePipelineBuffer(ctx->pipelineId, copy, copy_size,
+    if (buffer && gst_buffer_map(buffer, &map, GST_MAP_READ)) {
+      goHandlePipelineBuffer(ctx->pipelineId, map.data, (int)map.size,
+        GST_BUFFER_PTS(buffer),
+        GST_BUFFER_DTS(buffer),
         GST_BUFFER_DURATION(buffer),
         GST_BUFFER_FLAG_IS_SET(buffer, GST_BUFFER_FLAG_DELTA_UNIT)
       );
+      gst_buffer_unmap(buffer, &map);
     }
     gst_sample_unref(sample);
   }
diff --git a/server/pkg/gst/gst.go b/server/pkg/gst/gst.go
index 1ce2016c..25125e5f 100644
--- a/server/pkg/gst/gst.go
+++ b/server/pkg/gst/gst.go
@@ -211,9 +211,7 @@ func CheckElement(element string) error {
 }
 
 //export goHandlePipelineBuffer
-func goHandlePipelineBuffer(pipelineID C.int, buf C.gpointer, bufLen C.int, duration C.guint64, deltaUnit C.gboolean) {
-	defer C.g_free(buf)
-
+func goHandlePipelineBuffer(pipelineID C.int, buf C.gpointer, bufLen C.int, pts C.guint64, dts C.guint64, duration C.guint64, deltaUnit C.gboolean) {
 	pipelinesLock.Lock()
 	pipeline, ok := pipelines[int(pipelineID)]
 	pipelinesLock.Unlock()
@@ -223,6 +221,8 @@ func goHandlePipelineBuffer(pipelineID C.int, buf C.gpointer, bufLen C.int, dura
 			Data:      C.GoBytes(unsafe.Pointer(buf), bufLen),
 			Length:    int(bufLen),
 			Timestamp: time.Now(),
+			PTS:       time.Duration(pts),
+			DTS:       time.Duration(dts),
 			Duration:  time.Duration(duration),
 			DeltaUnit: deltaUnit == C.TRUE,
 		}
diff --git a/server/pkg/gst/gst.h b/server/pkg/gst/gst.h
index bdbd0347..73349f0f 100644
--- a/server/pkg/gst/gst.h
+++ b/server/pkg/gst/gst.h
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ typedef struct GstPipelineCtx {
   GstElement *appsrc;
 } GstPipelineCtx;
 
-extern void goHandlePipelineBuffer(int pipelineId, void *buffer, int bufferLen, guint64 duration, gboolean deltaUnit);
+extern void goHandlePipelineBuffer(int pipelineId, void *buffer, int bufferLen, guint64 pts, guint64 dts, guint64 duration, gboolean deltaUnit);
 extern void goPipelineLog(int pipelineId, char *level, char *msg);
 
 GstPipelineCtx *gstreamer_pipeline_create(char *pipelineStr, int pipelineId, GError **error);
diff --git a/server/pkg/types/capture.go b/server/pkg/types/capture.go
index febae9db..49e615df 100644
--- a/server/pkg/types/capture.go
+++ b/server/pkg/types/capture.go
@@ -20,19 +20,37 @@ var (
 type Sample struct {
 	// timing information
 	Timestamp time.Time
-	Duration  time.Duration
+	// PTS, DTS, and Duration use -1 for GST_CLOCK_TIME_NONE.
+	PTS      time.Duration
+	DTS      time.Duration
+	Duration time.Duration
 	// metadata
 	DeltaUnit bool // this unit cannot be decoded independently.
 	// buffer length
 	Length int
-	// buffer with encoded media
+	// Data is immutable and remains valid while referenced. Consumers may retain
+	// it after WriteSample returns.
 	Data []byte
 }
 
-type SampleListener interface {
+type SampleConsumer interface {
 	WriteSample(Sample)
 }
 
+type EncodedStream interface {
+	ID() string
+	Codec() codec.RTPCodec
+	Bitrate() uint64
+
+	Subscribe(SampleConsumer) (StreamSubscription, error)
+}
+
+type StreamSubscription interface {
+	Stream() EncodedStream
+	Switch(EncodedStream) error
+	Close() error
+}
+
 type BroadcastManager interface {
 	Start(url string) error
 	Stop()
@@ -103,27 +121,16 @@ type StreamSelector struct {
 	Bitrate uint64 `json:"bitrate"`
 }
 
-type StreamSelectorManager interface {
+type EncodedStreamSelector interface {
 	IDs() []string
 	Codec() codec.RTPCodec
 
-	GetStream(selector StreamSelector) (StreamSinkManager, bool)
+	GetStream(selector StreamSelector) (EncodedStream, bool)
 }
 
-type StreamSinkManager interface {
-	ID() string
-	Codec() codec.RTPCodec
-	Bitrate() uint64
-
-	AddListener(listener SampleListener) error
-	RemoveListener(listener SampleListener) error
-	MoveListenerTo(listener SampleListener, targetStream StreamSinkManager) error
-
-	ListenersCount() int
-	Started() bool
-
-	CreatePipeline() error
-	DestroyPipeline()
+type EncodedMediaSource interface {
+	Audio() EncodedStream
+	Video() EncodedStreamSelector
 }
 
 type StreamSrcManager interface {
@@ -137,13 +144,13 @@ type StreamSrcManager interface {
 }
 
 type CaptureManager interface {
+	EncodedMediaSource
+
 	Start()
 	Shutdown() error
 
 	Broadcast() BroadcastManager
 	Screencast() ScreencastManager
-	Audio() StreamSinkManager
-	Video() StreamSelectorManager
 
 	Webcam() StreamSrcManager
 	Microphone() StreamSrcManager